Published online before print June 10, 2009, doi: 10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.108.828467
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Original Articles |
Longitudinal Association of PCSK9 Sequence Variations With Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels
The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study
From the Department of Preventive Medicine (C.C.H., D.M.L.-J., K.L.), Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Ill; Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine (M.F., E.B.) and Human Genetics Center (E.B.), University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Tex; and Division of Prevention and Population Sciences (G.S.W.), The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md.
Correspondence to Kiang Liu, PhD, 680 N Lake Shore Dr, Suite 1102, Chicago, IL 60611. E-mail kiangliu{at}northwestern.edu
Received October 13, 2008; accepted May 27, 2009.
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Abstract |
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Background— Mutations of PCSK9 are associated cross-sectionally with plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels, but little is known about their longitudinal association with LDL-C levels from young adulthood to middle age.
Methods and Results— We investigated the associations of 6 PCSK9 variants with LDL-C over 20 years in 1750 blacks and 1828 whites from the Coronary Artery Risk Development In Young Adults study. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess longitudinal differences in LDL-C levels between genotype categories. For blacks, LDL-C levels at age 18 were significantly lower (P<0.001) among those with 3 genetic variants (L253F, C679X, and Y142X; 81.5 mg/dL) and A443T (95.5 mg/dL) compared with noncarriers (109.6 mg/dL). The difference in LDL-C levels from noncarriers tended to widen for those with the 3 variants only, by 0.24 mg/dL per year of age (P=0.14). For whites with the R46L variant, compared with noncarriers, LDL-C levels at age 18 were significantly lower (84.4 mg/dL versus 100.9 mg/dL; P<0.001), and the increase in LDL-C with age was similar to noncarriers. The 3 genetic variants and the A443T variant in black men were associated with lower carotid intima-media thickness and lower prevalence of coronary calcification measured at ages 38 to 50.
Conclusions— Our results suggest that participants with several genetic variants of PCSK9 have persistently lower serum LDL-C levels than noncarriers from ages 18 to 50. Such long-term reduction in LDL-C levels is associated with reduced subclinical atherosclerosis burden in black men.
Key Words: PCSK9 • LDL-C • genetic variant • longitudinal study
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Introduction |
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Elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is a major causal risk factor for atherosclerosis and its most common clinical manifestation, coronary heart disease (CHD). In addition to lifestyle, variants in genes coding for proteins such as apolipoprotein E (APOE), LDL receptor (LDLR), and apolipoprotein B (APOB) have been shown to play an important role in the regulation of LDL homeostasis.1 The recent discovery of several variants of proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) has suggested its role in LDL metabolism.2–6 Two independent microarray studies7,8 support a role for PCSK9 in sterol metabolism and adenoviral-mediated overexpression of PCSK9 in mouse liver depletes hepatic LDLR protein. A landmark epidemiological study by Cohen et al9 also demonstrated that individuals with 2 nonsense mutations in PCSK9, Y142X, and C679X, in blacks and 1 nonsense mutation, R46L, in whites have significantly lower LDL-C levels in middle age and dramatically lower subsequent incidence of CHD. As a result, PCSK9 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for lowering plasma LDL-C levels.10
Clinical Perspective on p 354
Novel variants associated with LDL-C levels have been reported in various studies from ethnically diverse populations.11–16 However, several of these variants have not been validated in large epidemiological studies. Moreover, little is known about the long-term trends of LDL-C levels associated with various variants of PCSK9 gene. In this study, we examined the association between 6 genetic variants of PCSK9 (R46L [rs11591147], A443T [rs28362263], L253F, C679X [s28362286], Y142X, and E6709G [rs505151]) and longitudinal change with aging of LDL-C from examinations in year 0 to year 20 among 1750 black and 1828 white healthy men and women enrolled in the Coronary Artery Risk Development In Young Adults (CARDIA) study. To determine whether variant-associated differences in LDL-C levels through young adulthood to middle age may also be associated with differences in development of subclinical atherosclerosis, we examined the association of these 6 genetic variants with carotid intimal-medial thickness (IMT) and coronary artery calcium (CAC) in middle age.
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Methods |
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Study Sample
The CARDIA study is a multicenter longitudinal study, examining cardiovascular risk factor development in young adults. The purpose of CARDIA is to study factors related to the evolution of cardiovascular disease risk factors by following a cohort from young adulthood to middle age. Details of participant enrollment and study procedures have been published elsewhere.17 Briefly, 5115 black and white men and women aged 18 to 30 years were enrolled in 1985–1986 at 4 centers in Birmingham, Ala (University of Alabama at Birmingham), Chicago, Ill (Northwestern University), Minneapolis, Minn (University of Minnesota), and Oakland, Calif (Kaiser Permanente Oakland). Participant recruitment was approximately balanced on age, sex, race, and education status at each center. Participants were examined at baseline (year 0) and at follow-up examinations in years 2 (1987–1988), 5 (1990–1991), 7 (1992–1993), 10 (1995–1996), 15 (2000–2001), and 20 (2005–2006). At these follow-up visits, 90%, 86%, 81%, 79%, 74%, and 72%, respectively, completed the examination. All participants have signed informed consent at each examination, and all study protocols have been approved by the institutional review boards at each site. Each participant’s age, race, and sex were self-reported during the recruitment phase and verified during the baseline clinic visit. Blood samples for measurement of blood lipids were collected according to standardized CARDIA protocols,17 after participants had fasted for 12 hours, and were processed at central laboratories as described previously.17,18
Use of LDL-lowering medication was also self-reported and only available for year 5, 7, 10, 15, and 20 examinations. For those on lipid-lowering medication, the fasting blood sample was collected before they took their medications that day. No special treatment was performed on blood samples of participants who used lipid-lowering medication. At each examination, weight and height were measured with subjects in light clothing and without shoes. Body weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg, using a calibrated scale. Height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm with a vertical ruler. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters. Carotid IMT was measured at the year-20 examination in CARDIA using high-resolution B-mode ultrasound. Images were acquired bilaterally for both the common and internal carotid arteries in accordance with a previous published protocol.19 The maximal IMT of the common carotid artery was defined as the mean of the maximal IMT of the near and far wall on both the left and the right sides, measured 10 mm proximal to the common carotid bulb. The internal carotid IMT included the mean of the maximal IMT of the near and far wall on both the left and the right sides in the internal artery exclusive of the carotid bulb. CAC was assessed by 2 computed tomography (CT) scans for each participant using electron beam CT with a standardized protocol.20 For each scan, 40 consecutive images from the root of the aorta to the apex of the heart were obtained. Scans were read centrally by a trained reader who examined each participant’s scan independently of the other. The reader identified a region of interest for each potential focus of CAC, defined as 4 or more adjacent pixels (1.87 mm2) with a CT number >130 HU (field of view, 35 cm). Agatston scores were adjusted for between-center differences using a standard calcium phantom scanned underneath each participant and summed across the 4 major coronary arteries to compute a total calcium score. The presence of CAC was defined as having a positive, nonzero Agatston score, using the average of 2 scans.
Genotype Data
Participants eligible for this study included 4119 individuals who consented to isolation of genomic DNA from a blood sample obtained at the year 10 or 15 examinations. Each of the 6 PCSK9 polymorphisms was genotyped using the TaqMan assay (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif) as described previously.21 Primers and probe sequences are available on request. Polymorphism genotyping in the CARDIA study adheres to a rigorous quality control program, which includes barcode identification of samples, robotic sample handling, and blind replicate genotype assessment on 5% of the total sample (n=195). The genotyping success rate was 94%, 94%, 93.4%, 95%, 96%, 96%, and 94% for E670G, A443T, L253F, C697X, Y142X, and R46L, respectively. As a result, the number of participants with missing genotyping data for each of the 6 PCSK9 polymorphisms ranged from 162 to 271.
Statistical Analysis
To assess the longitudinal association of PCSK9 genetic variants with LDL-C levels, generalized estimating equations (GEEs) were used with PCSK9 genetic variants, time-dependent age, and interaction term of PCSK9 genetic variants and time-dependent age as the independent variables, adjusting for gender, lipid medication use, time-dependent BMI, and examinations represented by 6 dummy variables. Separate analyses were performed for black and white participants. Participants without any of these 6 genetic variants (noncarriers) were considered as the reference group for their race. LDL-C at age 18 and LDL-C change per year were computed for E670G, A443T, and the 3 combined low-prevalence genetic variants (L253F, C679X, and Y142X) and compared with the noncarriers among blacks; only the R46L genetic variant was used for comparison among whites, given very low or absent prevalence of the other variants in whites. The same GEE procedure with exclusion of lipid medication use as an independent variable was also used to assess the association of PCSK9 genetic variants with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels as a comparison, given that PCSK9 is not known to have any direct association with HDL-C levels in other studies.9,15 Finally, multiple linear regression models and multiple logistic regression models were performed to assess the association of these genetic variants with carotid artery IMT measures and CAC prevalence at the year-20 examination, respectively. Data analysis was performed using SAS 9.1 and R 2.4.0.
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Results |
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Of the final 1750 black participants for data analysis, 46 men and 78 women were homozygous for the E670G allele, 148 and 169, respectively, were heterozygous or homozygous for the A443T allele, and 18 and 29 had at least 1 of the 3 genetic variants (L253F, C679X, and Y142X); there were 534 male and 728 female noncarriers. For the 1828 white participants included, 30 men and 30 women were heterozygous or homozygous for the R46L allele, with 852 male and 916 female noncarriers. Baseline anthropometric characteristics and lipid profiles from the examination are shown in Table 1. Total cholesterol and LDL-C levels are significantly lower among those with A443T, 3 genetic variants, or R46L when compared with the noncarriers. The minor allele frequency was 24.8% for E670G, 10% for A443T, 0.66% for C679X, 0.46% for L253F, 0.28% for Y142X, and 1.64% for R46L. There was no significant association between variants of PCSK9 and gender in both race groups (P=0.25 for blacks, P=0.89 for whites,
2 test). Changes in BMI over the 20-year period of time were similar among genetic variant groups and noncarriers within each race (data not shown). No deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was observed among the PCSK9 genetic variants except for E670G (P=0.04, 2 test).
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Baseline and Longitudinal Differences in LDL-C Levels
To illustrate the change of LDL-C levels during the 20 years of follow-up, we pooled all the data from the 7 CARDIA examinations and calculated the unadjusted mean LDL-C levels in participants at 7 age groups during 20 years of follow-up as shown in Figure 1 for blacks and whites separately, by genotype. For whites, mean LDL-C levels in the R46L variant group (mean±SD, 84.4±17.5 mg/dL) were significantly lower (P<0.01) than in noncarriers (100.9±30.3 mg/dL) at ages 18 to 20. This difference diminished slightly during the 20-year period of follow-up, because the R46L variant group had a greater increase in LDL-C levels than the noncarriers (99.8±21.9 mg/dL versus 111.4±31.5 mg/dL at age 46 or older, P=0.039). For blacks, the E670G variant group had similar mean LDL-C levels as the noncarriers in all ages. Conversely, the mean LDL-C levels in both the 3 genetic variants group (81.5±18.5 mg/dL) and the A443T variant group (95.5±32.1 mg/dL) were significantly lower than for noncarriers (109.6±32.0 mg/dL) at ages 18 to 20 years (P<0.01 for both), and the mean difference between the 3 gene variants and the noncarriers widened through age 46 or older (80.5±30.3 mg/dL versus 115.5±33.5 mg/dL, P<0.01). The Y142X variant was associated with the lowest mean LDL-C levels among the 3 variants in all age groups (supplemental Figure I). The mean differences between the A443T variant and the noncarriers remained similar during the 20-year period of time (P<0.05 for all 7 age groups). Notably, mean LDL-C levels in the 3 genetic variants group remained approximately the same (ie, did not increase) during the 20 years, a pattern unique to participants with these 3 genetic variants.
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Results of the GEE models examining the longitudinal changes of LDL-C with age in both race groups, adjusted for sex, time-dependent lipid medication use, time-dependent BMI, and examination are shown in Table 2. White noncarriers had a mean 0.83 mg/dL LDL-C increase per year (P<0.001). When compared with the noncarriers, participants with the R46L variant had a mean 16.2 mg/dL lower LDL-C at age 18 (P<0.001), and a nonsignificant increase in LDL-C level during the 20 years was observed (0.02 mg/dL per year; P=0.90 compared with the noncarriers). As expected, mean LDL-C levels in men were higher than women (by 8.22 mg/dL, P<0.001). Furthermore, each 1 unit of BMI higher was associated with a mean 1.33 mg/dL higher LDL-C level (P<0.001).
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For blacks, when compared with black noncarriers, participants with the 3 genetic variants had a substantially lower mean LDL-C level (by 30.63 mg/dL, P<0.001) at age 18. The A443T variant group also had significantly lower LDL-C at age 18 (by 9.69 mg/dL, P<0.001), whereas there was no statistically significant difference in those with E670G (P=0.40). Notably, the mean difference in LDL-C levels tended to widen by 0.24 mg/dL per year of age between the 3 genetic variants and the noncarriers (P=0.14). No significant differences in changes of LDL-C per year of age were observed during the 20-year period of time between the E670G or A443T variant groups and the noncarriers. Similarly to whites, mean LDL-C levels in women were lower than men by 4.72 mg/dL (P<0.001). Each 1 unit of BMI higher was associated with a mean 1.27 mg/dL greater LDL-C levels (P<0.001). To illustrate the trend for adjusted mean LDL-C levels with age groups, we used the same GEE procedure but replaced the continuous age variable with 7 age groups as shown in Figure 1. The adjusted mean LDL-C levels for PCSK9 variants by race are shown in Figure 2.
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Additional gender-specific analyses were performed using the same GEE model for both blacks and whites. For blacks, the effects of PCSK9 variants on LDL-C levels were similar between men and women. However, the mean difference in longitudinal changes in LDL-C levels between the 3 genetic variants and the noncarriers became less significant (P=0.22 and 0.25 for men and women, respectively), possibly because of smaller sample sizes. For whites, compared with noncarriers, the R46L variant group had similarly lower LDL-C levels at age 18x18.51 mg/dL (P<0.001) and 13.47 mg/dL (P=0.004) for men and women, respectively. The mean LDL-C levels widened by 0.33 mg/dL per year for women (P=0.04, compared with the noncarriers), whereas a nonsignificant increase in LDL-C level during the 20 years was observed for men (0.32 mg/dL per year, P=0.21).
Acknowledging that LDL-lowering medication use has significant impact on the LDL-C level, we repeated the aforementioned analysis by excluding participants with LDL-lowering medication use in the GEE models. The numbers of participants on LDL-lowering medication at the year 5, 7, 10 examinations were only <1%. At the year 15 examination, the use of LDL-lowering medication were 1.7%, 4.5%, and 1% among black noncarriers, E670G, and LDL-lowering variants, respectively, and 3.1% and 0% between white noncarriers and R46L variant, respectively. At the year-20 examination, there were 7.4%, 10.7%, and 5.5% of participants with LDL-lowering medication use among black noncarriers, E670G, and LDL-lowering variants, respectively, and 9.9% and 5.8% between white noncarriers and R46L variant, respectively. After excluding those with LDL-lowering medications use in our multivariate GEE models, our results remained similar except for the mean difference in LDL-C levels with age between the 3 variants and noncarriers among blacks; the difference has now widened to 0.37 mg/dL per year of age and has become statistically significant (P=0.005). This significant difference persists even in the gender-specific analysis.
Because of the possibility that LDL-C levels may be influenced by lifestyle and nutrient intake patterns, we further considered fat intake and physical activity as potentially confounding factors. However, after adjusting for the Keys score and total or heavy physical activity in our GEE procedure. There were no substantive difference in the association between PCSK9 variants and LDL-C levels.
Longitudinal Changes of HDL-C Levels
We also investigated the association of PCSK9 variants with longitudinal changes in HDL-C levels. No association has been reported so far between variants of PCSK9 and variation in HDL-C. The same GEE models as for the LDL analysis were used. In whites, when compared with noncarriers, participants with the R46L variant tended to have a higher mean HDL-C level, by 3.5 mg/dL, at age 18 (P=0.05), and this disparity was maintained with aging. In blacks, after adjusting for gender, age, BMI, and 6 dummy variables for examination, no significant differences in mean HDL-C levels were observed in any variant groups when compared with noncarriers at age 18. Participants with the A443T variant had an additional increase of 0.09 mg/dL (P=0.048) mean HDL-C levels per year of age relative to noncarriers. Additional analyses were performed by adjusting for LDL-lowering medication use and excluding participants with any LDL-lowering medication. The results remain similar to those reported earlier.
Effect of PCSK9 and APOE on LDL-C Levels
Gene-gene interactions could possibly affect the LDL-C levels. Therefore, we assessed the interaction between APOE and PCSK9. As shown in supplemental Table I, participants with the APOE 
2/2 or 3/2 genotypes have the lowest mean LDL-C levels in each of the PCSK9 variant groups and noncarriers. On the other hand, among those with the APOE 2/2 or 3/2 genotypes, mean LDL-C levels were still lower among those carrying PCSK9 LDL-C lowering variants when compared with noncarriers. Therefore, an additive effect seems to exist on LDL-C levels between PCSK9 and APOE. However, when testing the differences in mean LDL-C levels across APOE genotypes within each PCSK9 LDL-C variant, only APOE 2/2 or 3/2 genotypes within the PCSK9 A443T variant showed significantly lower mean LDL-C levels (P<0.01) compared with other APOE genotypes. The nonsignificant result for other PCSK9 variants is likely due to small sample sizes in several PCSK9/APOE genotypes.
Association of PCSK9 Genetic Variants With Carotid IMT and CAC
The mean IMT measures and CAC prevalence in each of the 6 PCSK9 variants, stratified by race and sex, at the year-20 examination are shown in Table 3. Of note, among black men, only 13% (12/92) in the A443T variant group and none (0/9) in the 3 genetic variants group had CAC >0 as compared with 28% (89/318) in the noncarriers. Mean IMT measures were also significantly lower among those with A443T variant when compared with the noncarriers. A similar association was not observed among black women. For whites, CAC prevalence was lower in both genders and IMT measure was also lower in women among those with R46L variant compared with the noncarriers, although none of these differences reached statistical significance. Further analysis for the association of PCSK9 variants with IMT measures using multiple linear regression model and CAC prevalence using multiple logistic regression model were performed separately for whites and blacks by sex. The descriptive statistics of cardiovascular risk factors included in the regression model are shown in Supplemental Table II. After adjusting for diabetic status, smoking status, systolic blood pressure, sex, BMI, and age at the year-20 examination, no significant difference in mean IMT measures was observed for any of the 6 variant groups when compared with the noncarriers of the same race. However, significantly lower CAC prevalence among the A443T variant group remained among black men (P=0.03, odds ratio 0.45, 95% CI [0.22–0.93]). When combining the A443T variant and the 3 genetic variants in black men, these 4 LDL-lowering variants had lower CAC prevalence (P=0.01, odds ratio 0.4, 95% CI [0.20–0.82]) as shown in Table 4.
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Further examination of CAC scores among blacks with CAC >0 reveals similar distributions between the noncarriers and those with these 4 LDL-lowering variants. As shown in Table 5, within both gender groups, the median CAC scores for those with the LDL-lowering variants were lower than the noncarriers. The 75th percentile CAC scores were lower among males, but not in females, with the LDL-lowering variants; the 90th percentile CAC scores, however, were much lower for both males and females with the variants than for the noncarriers.
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Discussion |
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In addition to LDLR and APOB, PCSK9 was recently identified as a novel gene involved in autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia from several familial studies.22–24 Recent studies have also described several variants of PCSK9 among specific populations that are associated with particularly high- or low-plasma LDL-C levels.13,15,22,25,26 In this study, we investigated 6 genetic variants of PCSK9 and their longitudinal association with LDL-C levels in CARDIA. Consistent with other studies, the R46L variant was more common in whites, whereas the other 5 variants (L253F, C679X, Y142X, A443T, and E670G) were more common in blacks. We observed that the 3 low-prevalence genetic variants (L235, C679X, and Y142X) and the A443T variant among blacks, and the R46L variant among whites, were associated with significantly lower LDL-C levels in young adulthood when compared with the noncarriers. Such differences were preserved during 20 years of follow-up, from young adulthood to middle age. Furthermore, the mean LDL-C levels of those carrying the 3 genetic variants stayed approximately the same during the 20 years of follow-up; the difference in mean LDL-C levels between those carrying the 3 genetic variants and the noncarriers increased by 0.25 mg/dL per year of age, implying that these 3 genetic variants of PCSK9 may provide strong regulation of plasma LDL-C levels.
Chen et al13 reported an association between LDL-C levels and E670G among an black population. Evans and Beil12 found the E670G single-nucleotide polymorphism associated with hypercholesterolemia in men. However, such an association was not confirmed in our study population or in the study by Kotowski et al.15 This discrepancy is most likely due to race and ethnic differences among these 4 studies. The study sample of Evans and Beil was men of European origin, and the majority (84%) of Chen’s sample was American whites. In contrast, our results regarding the E670G polymorphism are restricted to blacks (124/1750 [7%]), because only 3 whites were found to have this PCSK9 genetic variant. Our study sample is comparable with that of Kotowski et al,15 which included 1822 blacks, 1045 whites, and 601 Hispanics from the Dallas Heart study.
In a recent landmark study, Cohen et al9 studied PCSK9 variants among 3363 black and 9524 white participants of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. They observed that black participants with the uncommon nonsense mutations C679X and Y142X (2 of the 3 genetic variants group in this study) had 28% lower mean plasma LDL-C levels (100 mg/dL versus 138 mg/dL; P<0.001) at a mean age of 54 years. In a 15-year follow-up, black participants with C679X or Y142X had an 88% lower rate of clinical CHD events compared with the noncarriers (1.2% versus 9.7%; P=0.008), despite similar levels of other risk factors except for hypertension, which was less prevalent at baseline among carriers (37% versus 55%). Of note, black participants who carried these mutations had significant but only modestly lower carotid IMT compared with the noncarriers (0.70 mm versus 0.73 mm; P=0.04). In the study by Cohen, whites with the R46L variant (3.2% of the study sample) had a mean LDL-C level that was 15% lower than the noncarriers (116 mg/dL versus 137 mg/dL), similar levels of other risk factors, and significant but only modestly lower carotid IMT (0.71 mm versus 0.73 mm; P=0.005) at the baseline age. Carriers of R46L had 47% lower incidence of CHD during follow-up (6.3% versus 11.8%; P=0.003).
In this study, we found differences in LDL-C levels between the LDL-lowering variants (the 3 genetic variants and the A443T variant) and the noncarriers in blacks and between the R46L variant and the noncarriers in whites that were similar to those reported by Cohen et al. Because of the young age of the CARDIA sample, there have been very few clinical CHD events to date. We therefore examined measures of subclinical atherosclerosis, carotid IMT, and CAC, which were obtained at a mean age of 45 years, a decade earlier than the baseline age of the ARIC sample. We observed significantly lower prevalence of CAC and lower mean IMT among black men with the LDL-lowering variants (the 3 genetic variants and the A443T variant). Lower CAC prevalence or mean IMT trends were also observed among white men and women and black women although these associations did not reach statistical significance. The lack of significant differences in subclinical atherosclerosis measures in these race or gender groups may well be due to the younger age of the CARDIA cohort and the limited statistical power for detecting the associations. A recent study by Loria et al27 shows that levels of modifiable risk factors including LDL-C levels in the early adulthood are more informative predictors of CAC than concurrent levels in midlife. Our results are consistent with these findings suggesting that a long-term reduction in LDL-C levels from young adulthood to middle age may be associated with subclinical atherosclerosis burden, especially for CAC. In addition, it is worth noting that whereas the relative differences in LDL-C were similar in the current CARDIA and previously studied ARIC samples, the absolute levels of LDL-C were substantially lower in the overall CARDIA sample (even among those aged 45 and older), compared with ARIC. A recent study revealed that among whites, elevated total cholesterol levels in younger adults (at age 40) have limited impact on the 10-year risk of CHD but lead to substantially higher lifetime risks of CHD.28 Thus, the differentiation of subclinical atherosclerosis burden between the carriers of LDL-lowering variants and noncarriers may increase with aging. Further follow-up to older ages, as was possible in the ARIC study, is needed to determine whether clinical CHD event rates will differ between carriers and noncarriers of PCSK9 variants in CARDIA. It is also worth noting that carotid IMT and CAC do not directly measure the burden or likelihood of rupture of vulnerable, lipid-laden plaques in the coronary circulation, and therefore they may be imperfect surrogates for future risk of clinical CHD events.
A limitation of our study is the loss of follow-up of a substantial number of CARDIA participants over 2 decades. Those who were lost to follow-up were more likely to be men, black, less educated, or smokers. The GEE procedure assumes a missing complete at random mechanism to handle the missing data. To guard against this strong assumption, we also used mixed model to examine the association of PCSK9 variants with LDL-C levels and found the results to be similar to that from the GEE procedure. We further compared the baseline characteristics between those with and without loss of follow-up. We found no significant difference in their mean LDL-C levels. In addition to loss of follow-up, we also excluded from our analyses those who provided blood for DNA isolation but for whom genotyping data were unavailable. These missing genotyping data were due to the unsuccessful genotyping of the samples and not a factor of participants’ LDL-C levels or any clinical features. Therefore, their exclusion from our analyses should not bias our results.
The mechanism of action of PCSK9 on cholesterol levels has not been elucidated fully. An in vitro study of human cells by Dubuc et al3 shows that PCSK9 mRNA expression is upregulated by statins and cholesterol depletion by 2-fold more than that of LDLR. Maxwell et al8 found that PCSK9 mRNA levels were decreased by 2-fold in livers of mice fed a cholesterol-rich diet. Later studies further show that PCSK9 impairs LDLR, and in turn, inhibits LDL clearance,29whereas a depletion of PCSK9 in mice results in accelerated LDL clearance.5 Zhao et al16 show that the 3 variants prevent the secretion of mature PCSK9 by disrupting synthesis (Y142X), autocatalytic cleavage (L253F), or folding (C697X) of proteins, whereas R46 and A443T have no detectable effect on the processing or secretion of PCSK9. Moreover, circulating PCSK9 reduces LDLR levels, and knocking out PCSK9 increases LDLR levels and lowers plasma cholesterol levels. Therefore, the hypocholesterolemia associated with PCSK9 deficiency may be caused primarily by increased LDL clearance and not by reduced lipoprotein production. Taken together, these observations support the notion that PCSK9 affects cholesterol homeostasis by promoting LDLR degradation. Our work suggests that specific genetic variants of PCSK9 have a strong role in LDL metabolism. Data from the study by Cohen and us show no increased triglycerides levels among those carrying LDL-lowering variants. Therefore, loss of function of PCSK9 does not seem to be harmful. Further understanding of the molecular regulation of these mutations may lead to a more effective therapeutic management of lipid disorders.
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Acknowledgments |
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We thank Laura Colangelo for her assistance with data preparation. We also thank the reviewers for their valuable comments to improve this manuscript.
Sources of Funding
The CARDIA study was supported by contracts N01-HC-95095, N01-HC-48047, N01-HC-48048, N01-HC-48049, and N01-HC-48050 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health.
Disclosures
None.
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The online-only Data Supplement is available at http://circgenetics.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/CIRCGENETICS.108.828467/DC1.
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